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A ?@@7G: G8H8 G7 G7G8H7 G8&W7X8  X7W9$ X7' W8$  Y7$Z7  h8  g7i8 h7h7h8g9h9C  Y @8?&Y "@7@     X @8      A7. ?7B@\ @8G?7B8 X C      #E   E   G   (  D   4    D  7-[7'@7  -777 98  7   9  7  798  7&JT9"(eg!g "g!j h!gh $h       ,#  _ Figure3:NumberofPartiesandAreaofObvious  ImpactonCampsites  + '$    1    ݀'XXNotethatthePanelonEcologicalIntegrityhasrecommendedthefollowingasadefinitionofecological  integrity: Anecosystemhasintegritywhenitisdeemedcharacteristicforitsnaturalregion,includingthe  compositionandabundanceofnativespeciesandbiologicalcommunities,ratesofchangeandsupportingprocesses O (ParksCanada,2000,115).#X=X'D# r '$    2    ݀'XXNote,however,thattheverytitleofWagarsmonograph,TheCarryingCapacityofWildLandsfor  Recreation,reinforcesthelinkbetweencarryingcapacityandaparticularpurpose,inthiscaserecreation.#X=X'D# 0 '$    3    ݀'XXAlthoughdesigncarryingcapacityoffersusefulsolutions,italsomightpredisposemanagerstowards  modifyingthenaturalenvironmentinfavourofhumanuse,regardlessoftheobjectivesdeclaredforthesetting.When  designcarryingcapacitysolutionsareimplementedinwildernesssettings,theycanthemselvesfacilitatethedeclineof O theverywildernessvaluestheywereimplementedtoprotect.\  `$Times NewRoman WPC!ƚU Z*& &&#TNPP 2OMi( & TNPP &&TNPP   J  &r .  - "-J8   & &&#TNPP 2OMi & TNPP &&TNPP   "-- ---  !---&_a& - &_& - "- l  --̙- "-l  --&^ z "-̙- $ Y  -~--&̙- "- 6 --̙- "- L--̙- "-l j  --&  "-̙- $ \ E  --&& ^t "-̙- $.  S =e--&&- T "-̙- $  M 3 E --&--  -- @@Times New Roman- . 2 k 1`.--  --  . 2 q 2`.--a >@ i--  . 2  3`.--a @ K--  . 2  4`.-----  . 2 g5`.--D o--  . 2 6`.--.l --  . 2 7`.--[ :4--  . 2 n8`.--q)m--  @Times New Roman- .*2 Station Sampling Design}KpK>p}8}p}>>}p8cW>p}.--Times New Roman-&TNPP &- "-' "-- --&--&TNPP &Table_A WPC!%ƚU  $& &&#TNPP 2OMi & TNPP &&TNPP   J  &r .  - "-J8   & &&#TNPP 2OMi & TNPP &&TNPP   "-- ---  !---&_a& - &_& --k J i -- @@Times New Roman- .2 2.0 m`0`0.- "---- "---&-- $OOyy $ ||R $M Mw--&&8& @@Times New Roman- .2 25 cm``0U.&N -- $' ' } }  $T TD * $QD  Q{ --&--FK-- `@Times New Roman- .2 Iron Pin55PP(Y,P.- "-rp--- "-r|--3- "- r0-- - "-  r -- 3- "- Qr-- ̙- "- q r -- ̙- "- =r-- ̙- "- r\-- ̙- "-  r -- 33- "- rl-- 33- "- r -- 33- "- u r -- 33- "- Ar-- 33- "- ar -- 33- "- -r-- 33- "- r@-- 33- "-  r -- - "-K|--- "-K--- "- K  -- 3- "- K<-- 3- "- K]-- ̙- "- Kq  -- ̙- "- K1-- ̙- "- K\-- ̙- "- K  -- 33- "- Kl-- 33- "- K  -- 33- "- K,-- 33- "- KM-- 33- "- Ka -- 33- "- K!-- 33- "- KL-- 33- "- K  -- &-- $ee;; $99c $hh>--&----  . 2 K25cmPPG{.& -- -- @@Times New Roman- .!2 4 sample points =`0KU`5U0``6`5K0l. .!2 6 sample points =`0KU`5U0``6`5K0l. ."2 y 10 sample points =``0KU`5U0`a5`5K0l. ."2 _18 sample points =``0KU`5U0`a5`5K0l. ."2 E34 sample points =``0KU`5U0`a5`5K0l.- "- E  --- "- E  --- "-]E  --- "-yE --- "- E --- "-   -- - "- ]  -- - "- y -- - "-  -- 3- "-   h-- 3- "- ]h-- 3- "- y h-- ̙- "- ]e-- ̙- "- ye -- 33- "- ]8-- --  3 -- `@Times New Roman- . 2 m +Z.--^ --  . 2 b +Z.--  3 --  . 2 r m +Z.--^ --  . 2 F +Z.-- 3 --  . 2 bm +Z.-- ^ --  . 2 r +Z.-- 3 --  . 2 Fm +Z.-- --  . 2 b=+Z.----  . 2 F=+Z.--R--  . 2 F+Z.&--1:--  @Times New Roman- .$2 Arm Sampling Designc8}p}>>}p8cW>p}.--Times New Roman-&TNPP &- "-' "- - - -&--&TNPP &Table_ATable_ATable_A !  _CEUS.,    UXX 5q,THE  ECOLOGICALIMPACTOFBACKCOUNTRYRECREATION " IN 3 KEJIMKUJIKNATIONALPARK D UUFINALREPORT#UUJ# #X=XUU#  f  m1"9)%`|0- ` EG   > m   (#(#                                                       I   (#(#  by  R.J.Payne,Ph.D.   Professor r! SchoolofOutdoorRecreation,Parks&Tourism _" LakeheadUniversity L#  ThunderBay,Ontario 9$! P7B5E1 &%v " rjpayne@flash.lakeheadu.ca 'P"$   August,2001 ,'*  UXX=     {-(+ 5 8=XXdd8   TABLEOFCONTENTS#X=XUj#  e  Acknowledgements0 0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#iic (# (#  ListofFigures 0 0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#iii@  (# (#  ListofTables 0 0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#iv  (# (#  EXECUTIVESUMMARY 0  0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#v  (# (#  A.0  Introduction 0 (#(#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#1r  (# (#  (v  (v B  .0    LiteratureReview 0(#(#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#3(v یO  (# (# Ќ  (v  (v@ C  .0    Methodology 0 (#(#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#13(v@ [ ی,  (# (# Ќ  (v  (vD  .0    TheEcologicalImpactofBackcountryRecreationinKejimkujik(vیm(#(# Ќ    NationalPark 0  0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#15Y (# (#   E.0  DiscussionandRecommendations 0(#(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#276 (# (# X=XXX= F.0  References #X=XXX=#0 (#(#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#33 (# (#   w    Acknowledgements  e %  SpecialthanksgotoSteveKingston,researchassociateonthehumanecologyproject,forsampling > design,datacollectionandanalysis. +  AngusCarr,GeospatialInc.,ThunderBay,alsodeservesspecialthanksforhisworkindeveloping   thetopologicalnetworkdescribingbackcountryuse.   ThanksalsotoNancyParishwhoassistedStevewithdatacollectionduringthe19992000field  g season. T    A  FLCJ XX   ListofFigures  e  Figure1:0 ` TheLogisticSCurve 0` (#` (#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#4> (# (#  Figure2:0 ` NumberofVisitorsandAreaofObviousImpactonCampsites 0x` (#` (#0 x(#x(#16  (# (#  Figure3:0 ` NumberofPartiesandAreaofObviousImpactonCampsites 0x` (#` (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#17  (# (#  Figure4:0 ` MaximumPartySizeandAreaofObviousImpactonCampsites 0 ` (#` (#0@ x(#x(#17 p (# (#  Figure5:0 ` NumberofVisitorsandAreaofObviousImpactonTrailSegments 0 ` (#` (#0@ x(#x(#18M  (# (#  Figure6:0 ` NumberofVisitorsandAreaofObviousImpactonTrailSegments 0 ` (#` (#0@ x(#x(#19*  (# (#   򀀀WithoutTP8&10     Figure7:0 ` NumberofPartiesandAreaofObviousImpactonTrailSegments 0 ` (#` (#0@ x(#x(#20 \  (# (#   WithoutTP8&10  L  Figure8:0 ` MaximumPartySizeandAreaofObviousImpactonTrailSegments 0 ` (#` (#20 % (# (#   WithoutTP8&10    Figure9:0 ` PlotSamplingDesign 0` (#` (#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#30 (# (#  Figure10:0 ` StationSamplingDesign0` (#` (#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(# 31f (# (#  Figure11:0 ` ArmSamplingDesign 0` (#` (#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#32C (# (#   %!    7,  ListofTables  e  USCE.,X=XXX=Table1:UnivariateTests,DepthofMaterialontheSoilwithallplots(MATDEP) > ЀandwithCampsitesandTrailSegments(MATDEP*IMPACT)#X=XXX=b# CE.,US.,P0 x 0 x(#x(#21*  (# (#  Table2:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,DepthofMaterialontheSoil   Ѐ(MATDEP) 0 0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#22  (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table3:UnivariateTests,BasalAreaofTreesWithinallPlots(TREES)and  k ЀwithCampsiteandTrailSegmentPlots(TREES*IMPACT) CE.,US.,"0  #X=XXX="#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#23W  (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table4:UnivariateAnalysis,Diversity(DIVERSIT)withallplotsandwith 4  ЀCampsiteandTrailSegmentPlots(DIVERSIT*IMPACT)#X=XXX=## CE.,US.,#0  0x (# (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#0@ (# (#23  (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table5:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,Diversity#X=XXX=.%# CE.,US.,%0  0p(#(#0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#24b  (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table6:UnivariateAnalysis,PlantDensitywithallPlots(DENSITY) ? ЀandwithCampsiteandTrailSegmentPlots(DENSITY*IMPACT) CE.,US.,P&0 x #X=XXX=b&#0 x(#x(#0@ (# (#25+ (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table7:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,PlantDensity#X=XXX='# CE.,US.,'0 p 0p(#p(#0 (#(#0x (# (#0 x(#x(#0@ x(#x(#25 (# (#  USCE.,X=XXX=Table8:UnivariateAnalysis,SpeciesRichnesswithallplots(SPRICH)  ЀandwithCampsiteandTrailSegmentPlots(SPRICH*IMPACT)#X=XXX=)# CE.,US.,(0 x 0 x(#x(#0@ (# (#26 (# (#   UXX= 8=XXdXXd8HEXECUTIVESUMMARY X-&* qCJ H 8=XXdXXd8# C8'dXXd8=# C8'dd8=   #X=XU*#    Thisreportconstitutestheresultsofaresearchprojecttoexaminetheecologicalimpacts  ofbackcountryrecreationinKejimkujikNationalPark.Measuringecologicalimpactfocusedon  vegetationandobviousphysicaleffectssuchas disturbedareaatcampsitesandalongtrail w segments.Variabilityinhumanusewasmeasuredbymeansofthenationalparksbackcountry d permittingsystem,usingthe1995season. Q    Duringthefirstfieldseason(1998),theresearchteamestablishedavegetationsampling + { protocolthatallowedsubsequentanalysisby repeatedmeasuresprocedures.Twentyplots,10  h adjacenttocampsitesand10alongtrailsegments,wereplacedinKejimkujiksbackcountryareas  U  usingthissamplingprotocol.  B    Inthesecondfieldseason(1999),measurementsofvegetationonthe20plotsestablished   inYear1,werecompleted,datawerestoredincomputerfilesandpreliminaryanalysiswasbegun.     Moredetailedanalyses,includingthedevelopmentofatopologyofvisitationnodesand   connectingarcsandthecomputationofindicesofspeciesrichnessanddiversity,setthestagefor  therepeatedmeasuresanalysis.Thefinallevelofanalysissounghttoanswertworesearchquestions: m  RJ/:KLNOPQ(x3H"J3"  J3323  0    X=XXX= whataretherelationshipsbetweenbackcountrytravelandcampingand(terrestrial) G ecologicalimpactsinKejimkujikNationalPark?,and,J333݌4(#(# Ќ  "J3"  J3423  0    #X=XXX=3#X=XXX=hasthebackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategydevelopedbythenationalparkstaff !q beensuccessful?#X=XXX=5#J34*5݌^(#(# Ќ    Therepeatedmeasuresanalysisrevealedthathumanusevariables(numberofvisitors, 8 numberofpartiesandmaximumpartysize)arecorrelatedfairlystronglywiththeareaofobvious % impactoncampsitesandtrailsegments.Thenumberofvisitorsseemsaparticularlyrobustcausal  factorindeterminingtheareaofobviousimpact,especiallyoncampsites,butalsoalongtrail  segments.    Theeffectsofdistancefromcampsitesandtrailsegmentswerenoticeableonseveralofthe v  ecologicalvariables.Thevariables,depthofmaterialonthesoil,plantdiversityandplantdensity, c! werestatisticallydifferentimmediatelyadjacenttocampsitesthanfartherawayintheplots.These P"  distanceeffectsdidnotarisealongtrailsegments. =#!   Addinghumanusevariables,especiallythenumberofvisitorstocampsitesorusingtrail %g # segments,didnotyieldsignificantstatisticalresults,suggestingthattheintensityofvisitorusedoes &T!$ notaffectplantcommunitiesadjacenttothecampsitesandtrailsegments. &A"%   Thereportconcludesthatthebackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategyhasbeen ($' generallysuccessfulinfocusingvegetationimpactsoncampsitesandtrailsandinprotecting )%(  ecologicalintegrityinKejimkujikNationalPark. *%) UXX= \A.0  Introduction #X=XU<#=(#(# X=XXX=  Thisprojectaddressesaperennialissueinnationalparksmaintainingecologicalintegrity ; andbiodiversitywhileencouragingvisitoruse.Thatthisissuecontinuestobedevilparkmanagers  a inCanadiannationalparksisreadilyapparent.Consider,forexample,themostrecentStateofthe   ParksReport(ParksCanada,1995a),inwhichacauseandeffectlinkismadebetweenfacilitiesfor d ' visitorsandthreatstoecologicalintegrity.Morerecently,theBanff-BowValleyTaskForce(1996)    detailedinexplicitfashiontherelationshipsbetweenheavyvisitoruseandreductionsinbiodiversity *  intheBowValleycorridorofBanffNationalPark.Anothersourceofcriticalcommentisthefederal P  AuditorGeneralwho,inhis1996annualreport,subjectedParksCanadasoperationstoscrutiny   (OfficeoftheAuditorGeneral,1996).ChiefamongtheAuditorGeneralsconcernswasthe S  inabilityofParksCanadatomanagebiodiversityinnationalparksinasatisfactoryway.More y recently,asubsequentStateoftheParksreport(ParksCanada,1997)rankednationalparksonhow  welleachmaintainedecologicalintegritywithinitsboundaries;KejimkujikNationalParkrated3, |? indicativeofamoderatedeclineinecologicalintegrity.TheReportofthePanelonEcological  IntegrityinCanadasNationalParks(ParksCanada,2000)representsthemostrecentassessment B ofhowwelltheagencymeetsitsmandateofmaintainingecologicalintegrity.TheEIPanelwas h criticalofParksCanadaseffortsinthreewaysimportanttothisreport,maintainingthat:   Yc  Yc E"0    ParksCanadalackeda cultureofconservation;Yc E%E݌k."(#(# Ќ  Yc  YcE"0    ParksCanadalackedscientificcapacity;and,YcEE݌$(#(# Ќ  Yc  YcF"0    ParksCanadasmanagementofhumanusewasweak.YcFF݌1!&(#(# Ќ    ThesecriticismscannotbeallowedtoovershadowprogressmadebyParksCanadain "W( managingtomaintainecologicalintegrity.Woodley(1991)andWelch(1995)bothillustratethe #* advancesmadeindefiningecologicalintegrityinoperationaltermsandtheeffortstodevelop Z%, baselinedatatoanchormonitoring.InKejimkujikNationalPark,ecologicaldatabasedevelopment & . iswelladvanced(Drysdale,1995);furthermore,therecentParkManagementPlanforKejimkujik  (!0 NationalPark(1995b)#X=XXX=j=#X=XXX=commitsparkmanagerstoprotectingbiodiversity.Thesecommitmentsare )F#2 givenmorespecificdirectionintheparksdraft(1998)EcosystemConservationPlanwherecoming *$4 togripswith humanecologyisaccordedhighprioritystatusundertheterrestrialecological I, &6 FL F F  integritycategory. *   However,informationaboutparkvisitorsdoesnotmatchthatwhichexistsforspeciesor c ecosystemsinnationalparks(Payne,1997),afactwhichrepresentsaseriousimpedimentto  ecosystemmanagement.Thecombinationofnaturalscienceandsocialscienceinformationhas S ) becomearepeated,althoughproblematic,requirementinecosystemmanagement(U.S.Forest   Service,1994).Onepurposeofthisprojectwastobringattentiontotheecologicalimplicationsof    visitoruseofparkenvironments.Specifically,thisresearchprojectseekstoprovideananswerto |R  thefollowingquestionofcarryingcapacity:   *(ddd Xdd Xdd X(#(#,<dd +  &0B B  &   Whataretherelationshipsbetweenbackcountrytravelandcampingand(terrestrial) |  ecologicalimpactsinKejimkujikNationalPark? #X=XXX=I#X=XXX=1'%   0 1#X=XXX=JP#O    StaffX=XXX=ԀatKejimkujikNationalParkhavelongappreciatedthatrecreationistsmightwellbe v producingnegativeandlonglastingecologicalimpactsintheparksbackcountry.Somesuch  impacts,suchasdisturbedareasaroundpopularcampsites,thecuttingoftreelimbsforfirewood f< andwidespread catholesaroundcampingsites,wereobvious.Others,suchasvegetativechange,  arelessso,butstaffinthenationalparkwereconcernedthatthemoreobviousimpactsmadethe , likelihoodofvegetativechangemuchhigher.Theobservationsandanecdotalevidenceofuser e impactsledthestafftoformulateabackcountrymanagementstrategydesignedtominimizethe  impactsofbackcountrycamping.Thestrategywascomposedofthefollowingparts: U+!  RJ/:KLNOPQ(xxRJ/:KLNOPQ"J3"  J3U23  0    identificationofbackcountrycampsites;J3UCU݌#(#(# Ќ  "J3"  J3U23  0    controlofthosesitesthroughapermittingsystem;J3U!V݌!%(#(# Ќ  "J3"  J3V23  0    establishmentoftentpadsandfirepitsoneachcampsite;J3V W݌~"T'(#(# Ќ  "J3"  J3W23  0    developmentofa pitprivyoneachsite;and,J3WW݌#)(#(# Ќ  "J3"  J3X23  0    supplyoffirewoodateachdesignatedcampsite.J3XX݌D%+(#(# Ќ  Theintentofthestrategyisclear:requirepeopletocampatdesignatedsitesandensurethatthose &} - designatedsitescontainedamenitiesthateliminateparticularuserbehavioursthatimpactuponthe  (!/ naturalenvironment.Therewouldstillbeimpacts,butthoseimpactswouldbeonthedesignated m)C#1 campsitesonly.Thisresearchalsoservestotestwhetherthebackcountryrecreationmanagement *$3 strategydevelopedbythestaffhasbeensuccessful. 3, &5 Ї#X=XXX=P#UXX= (v  (v"\B  .0    UU#X=XU\#UXX=LiteratureReview #X=XU\##X=XXX=\#(v"\=\ی*(#(# Ќ    USCE., Carryingcapacityisanattractiveidea.Itpossessesanintuitiveappealwhichhaslead  manypeopletoplaceitattheverycentreoftheoriesandprescriptionsthatfocusonthehumanuse &  ofnaturalenvironments.Forenvironmentalmanagersespecially,itpromisesscientificjustification  _ fordifficultdecisionsthatinevitablyinvolvecompetinghumaninterestsaswellasincomplete   knowledgeofthenaturalenvironment.U.S.researchersrecentlypolledNationalParkService O %  managerswhowereresponsibleforbackcountrymanagementinnationalparks  (Manning,etal.,   1996)M`  &{Manning, Ballinger, et al. 1996 #700}&,/Manning, Ballinger, Marion and Roggenbuck, 1996/0C:\Program Files\ProCite4\Database\Keji-cc99.pdt.Amongtheproblemsmanagersreportedwasthedeteriorationofcampsitesandtrails.The   researcherswentontoidentifythreetrends: xN  Yc  YcBb"0 `   backcountryimpactswereprimarilyrelatedtorecreationaluse;YcBb]b݌ ` `  Ќ  Yc  Yc c"0 `   negativevisitorexperiencesandcrowdingwerebecomingissues;and,Yc c(c݌ ` `  Ќ  Yc  Ycc"0 `   carryingcapacitywas ...apervasivebutunresolvedissue(Manningetal.,  1996,pp.144145).Yccc݌x` `  Ќ  b"b0b  CarryingcapacitywithinaCanadiannationalparkcontextisattheheartofthisdocument. |R NationalparksinCanadaaredistinctiveinthatwhiletheyareestablishedtoprotectrepresentative  andsignificantnaturalareasofnationalimportance,theyalsoareexpectedtooffervisitors B opportunitiestounderstand,appreciateandenjoynaturalandculturalheritage.Managingthis { contradictionbetweenprotectionanduseisthechiefenterpriseofnationalparkmanagers.Itisin  thiscontextthatcarryingcapacityhasbeenconsideredasamanagementtool.Adiscussionanda kA! critiqueofcarryingcapacityformthefocusofthisliteraturereview. # ;  X=XXX=B.10  TheIdeaofCarryingCapacity#X=XXX=yh#  lh 1!%(#(#   Carryingcapacityisanvenerableidea.Moderndefinitionsreflectthemostimportant "i' dimensionsoftheconcept: #)  Anenvironmentscarryingcapacityisitsmaximumpersistentlysupportableload Y%/+ (Catton,1986citedinRees,1998);and, F& , iii ...carryingcapacity...assumesthatthereareafinitenumberofpeoplewhocanbe  (!. supportedwithoutdegradingthenaturalenvironmentandsocial,economicand  )"/ culturalsystemsand,assuch,isanindirectmeasureofthemaximumlevelofstress )#0 thatanecosystemcanmaintain(Barbier,BurgessandFolke,1994).(International *$1 InstituteforSustainableDevelopment,1995). +%2 jjjeDanielBotkin(1990,p.20),however,pointsoutthatin1849aBelgianscientist,PierreFran ois * Verhulst,firstdiscussedtheSshapedlogisticgrowthcurve(Figure1)thatdescribeshowa c populationgrowstoitslimits.Allotherthingsbeingequal,thoselimitssetthecarryingcapacityfor  5@XHD~| B  ` X@E Kv b -S  s#s#                                  s#s#  (Adaptedfrom:Botkin,1990,p.20,Figure2)  thatpopulationinthatenvironment.Thedefinitionscitedabovecontaintheessentialkernelsof  VerhulstsScurve.Eachalsooffersotherelementswhichhavecometobeacceptedaspartofthe M# meaningofcarryingcapacity. Loadmightbenumbersofpeopleasintheseconddefinition,but  itmightalsobecattle,volesorsewageeffluent.Goingbeyondanenvironmentscarryingcapacity   producesaresponse:intheseconddefinition,theresponseisthedegradationofthatenvironment. v!L! Theseconddefinitionalsomentions stressand,indoingso,introducesthecausalrelationshipof "#  stressresponse,adirectandtraceablecauseandeffectlink,whichformsamainthemein <$% ecologicalscience.Lastly,theseconddefinitionprovidesthesignificantobservationthatnaturaland %u' socialsystemsareinterrelated:overshootingcarryingcapacitycausesaresponseintheecosystem ' ) which,inturn,affectselementsofthesocialsystem. e(;"+   Thecarryingcapacityideaisimplicitinawellknownwritingthathasbecomerequired )#- readinginenvironmentalscience.GarrettHardins TragedyoftheCommons  (Hardin,1968)wof  j{Nelson 1968 #3160}719680C:\Program Files\ProCite4\Database\Keji-cc99.pdtj, ++%/ focusedattentionontheapparentlyinevitableabuseandresultantdegradationofcommonproperty * resources.Hardinsscenariocontainsaspectsofthedefinitionsofferedearlierandalsoprovides c opportunitiestolearnmoreaboutthemeaningofcarryingcapacity.    AlthoughHardinsoriginalpaperfocuseduponasinglepasture,hehasalsoappliedthe S ) argumentatalarger,globalscale(Hardin,1998).Thequestionthenarises:cancarryingcapacitybe   ausefulframeworkateveryscale,fromapasturetotheEarthitself?Environmentalscientistsare    comfortableworkingatdifferentscales,buttheyrecognizethatshiftingdownthescale,frombiome |R  toecosite,isaccompaniedbychangesinkeyfactorsandinapplicableprocesses(Formanand   Godrun,1986;Peck,1998).Anenvironmentalscientistwouldappreciatetheimportanceofglobal B  circulationsystemsindeterminingclimaticandvegetativeregimesonacontinentwidebasis. {  However,(s)hewouldrecognizethatsuchgloballysignificantfactorswouldbeoflittleusein   understandingthevariationinvegetationandmoistureonalocalhillside.Atwhatscale(s)can kA carryingcapacitybemosteffectivelyemployed?    Anotherelementofcarryingcapacityrevealedinthesetwosourcesistheimplicit 1 understandingthatwhatisbeingconsideredisthecarryingcapacityofthepastureoroftheearthfor j somepurpose.Thus,Hardinsconcernisthatthepasturewillberuined,thatitwillnolongerprovide  goodgrazingforpeoplescattle.Ifitispossibletotiecarryingcapacitytoimplicitpurposesorgoals, Z0  thenitislogicaltoassumethatotherpurposesmaywellbeassociatedwithdifferentcarrying " capacities.Inotherwords,theremaybemanydifferentversionsofcarryingcapacity.Atthevery  $ least,itisreasonabletosaythataparticularexpressionofcarryingcapacitymustbefirmlyassociated  Y& withaspecificpurpose.Todiscusscarryingcapacitywithoutdiscussingitspurpose,then,wouldbe !( misleadingandinappropriate. I#*   Insummary,thefollowingmaybesaidofcarryingcapacity: $, eYc  Yc"0 `   itcanbedefinedas anenvironmentsmaximumpersistentlysupportable &. load;Ycڂ݌& /` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Yc"0 `   itmaybeemployedatavarietyofscales;and,Ycу݌'!0` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Ycq"0 `   itisalwaysassociatedwithapurposeorgoal.Ycq݌("1` !` ! Ќ  e  X=XXX=B.20  TheMythsofCarryingCapacity#X=XXX=w#  j *$3s#s#   Attemptstomeasurethecarryingcapacityofanenvironmenthavebeenlargelyunsuccessful. ,%5 Whyhasitbeensodifficulttomeasurecarryingcapacity?Therearethreemythsormisconceptions * aboutcarryingcapacitythatinterferewithitsmeasurement:carryingcapacityasaconcept;closed c versusopensystemsinnature;and,carryingcapacitysassociationwithpurpose.      X=XXX=B.2.1CarryingCapacityasaConcept#X=XXX=#    S )   Itiscommonplacetofindresearcherswritingaboutthecarryingcapacity concept.   AccordingtoLawrenceNeuman(1997,p.39),aconcept ...isanideaexpressedasasymbolorin    words.Neumangoesontodiscuss height,aconceptwhichcanbedefinedand,moreimportantly, vL  measured.     UsingNeumansdefinitionofconcept,consider ecologicalintegrity,aconceptparticularly <  relevanttonationalparkmanagement.Ecologicalintegrityisausefulconcepttoexaminehere u  becausediscussionsarecurrentlyunderwaywithinParksCanadatodeterminehowtomeasureit.   Arecentdefinition )#  1      ׀isthefollowing: e; e%Ecologicalintegrityistheconditionofanecosystemwhere1)thestructureand  functionoftheecosystemareunimpairedbystressesinducedbyhumanactivity,and,  2)theecosystem'sbiologicaldiversityandsupportingprocessesarelikelytopersist x (ParksCanada,1998a). e @e2NSeveralaspectsofthisdefinitionarenoteworthy.First,ecologicalintegrityisdefinedas the i? conditionofanecosystem;moreover,directionisofferedastohowthatconditionmightbe  measured,namelythroughtheecosystemsstructureandfunction.Furthermore,afocuson /!  persistenceenablesanecologicalscientisttoconsiderthelikelihoodofchangeintheecosystem. h# Eachoftheseaspectsaremeasurable,regardlessofwhetherthenationalparkislargeorsmall,in  % northernorsouthernCanada.Agreementonthedefinitionofecologicalintegrityandthemeansof X".' measuringitprovideresearcherswithameansofcomparingecologicalintegrityfromnationalpark #) tonationalparkorfromzonetozonewithinonenationalpark.Whiletheremaybeotherwaysof %+ definingandmeasuringecologicalintegrityintheliterature(e.g.,Anderson,1991),theydiffer &W - primarilyinhowecologicalintegrityismeasured. *   Ifparkscientistshavesuccessfullydefinedandmeasuredecologicalintegrity,whyisdefining c andmeasuringcarryingcapacitysuchadifficultproposition?Theanswerliesinthedefinitionof  carryingcapacityofferedearlier: ...carryingcapacity...assumesthatthereareafinitenumberof S ) peoplewhocanbesupportedwithoutdegradingthenaturalenvironment....Thisdefinitionis   qualitativelydifferentfromthatofferedforecologicalintegritybecauseitpaintscarryingcapacity    asarelationshipbetweenuseandenvironmentaleffects.Notethatthedefinitionforecological |R  integrityindicatesnotonlywhatitisbutalsohowitmaybemeasured;itdoesnotsuggesta   relationshipinanyway. B    Carryingcapacityisnotaconcept,butratherageneralization,perhapsevenatheory  (Burch, {  1984)c  p{Burch 1984 #3830} Burch, 1984 0C:\Program Files\ProCite4\Database\Keji-cc99.pdtp.       X=XXX=B.2.2OpenversusClosedSystemsinNature  #X=XXX=# kA   Hardindescribedasimplesystem,consistingoftwocomponentsacommonpastureanda  groupofherdsmen.Whilesuchsimplicitymightbevaluableinhighlightingtheabuseofcommon 1 propertyresources,itdoesnotrepresentrealityverywellwhereevidenceshowsthatsocialsystems, j bothsimpleandcomplex,doseemtobeabletomanagecommonpropertyproblems.Realityismore  complexthanheuristicmodels;workinginthefieldmakesimpossiblethatwhichisnormally Z0  performedinthelaboratory. "   Reality(e.g.,theborealvegetativezone)featuresmorerelevantvariables.Ecosystemsare  $ moreopenthanHardinsdepictionofthecommonpasture.Whatsmore,eventhecommonpasture  Y& scenarioseemsmoreopentooutsideinfluencesthanHardiniswillingtocredit,givingevensucha !( simplesystemadegreeofadaptabilitywhichmaypreventitscollapse.Managersinnationalparks I#* knowonlytoowellthattheireffortsareconductedinanenvironmentinfluencedbyawelterof $, factorsoverwhichtheyhavelittlecontrol.Theystrivetomanageecosystems(and,indeed,social &. systemssuchastourism)whichareopen,notclosed.Determininghowthesevariousfactorsinteract r'H!0 requiresalevelofscientificsophisticationseldomachievedorafforded.Furthermore,managers ("2 wouldbequicktopointoutthatnonecologicalfactorssuchasbudgetcutshavesignificantthough 8*$4 indirectimpactsonthenaturalenvironmentsinnationalparks. +q%6     X=XXX=B.2.3CarryingCapacityandPurpose#X=XXX=u# h  *   Earlieritwasestablishedthatforcarryingcapacitytobemeaningful,itisnecessaryto ] identifythepurposewithwhichitisassociated.Thus,Hardinsconcernwasforthecarryingcapacity  ofacommonpastureforcattle.Introducingotherpurposesorgoals(maintainingbiodiversity,for M # example)wouldfurthercomplicateHardinsanalysis.However,doingsowouldhavebegunto   approachthesortofcomplexitythatcharacterizestherelationshipthathumanshavewiththenatural    world. vL    Managementdirectionsinnationalparkstypicallyspecifymorethanonepurposeorgoal.   ManagersinCanadiannationalparksattempttomaintainorrestoreecologicalintegrity,butalsoseek <  toprovidevisitorswithopportunitiestounderstand,appreciateandenjoynaturalandcultural u  heritage.SuchgoalsreflectbothlegislationandpolicyfornationalparksinCanada.Anyattemptto   utilizecarryingcapacityinCanadiannationalparksmustrecognizethelegitimacyofthese e; contradictorygoals.    X=XXX=B.30  CarryingCapacityandProtectedAreas#X=XXX= # t +s#s#   Carryingcapacitywasintroducedintotheparks,recreationandtourismliteraturebyWagar c (1964) )#  2      .Threevariationsofcarryingcapacitymightbeappliedinnationalparksettings.One,design  (orphysical)carryingcapacity,isanarchitectural/engineeringadaptationwhichspecifiesparticular S)  levelsofuseinorforfacilities.Innationalparksettings,itmightbeutilizedtomanageroadsin " frontcountryareas.Forexample,ifroadsweredesignedforlightautomobiletrafficbutwerebeing $ usedbymanymorecarsthanexpectedorbymanylargerecreationalvehicles,itwouldbereasonable | R& tosaythatthecarryingcapacityofthoseroadshadbeenexceeded,withtheconsequentproblemsof !( maintenanceandpublicsafety.Inanotherexample,avisitorcentre,thenumbersofvisitorsatone B#* timemaybesuchthatfiresafetybecomesanissuebecausethebuildingwasnotdesignedwiththe ${, numberofexitsnecessaryforthelargerthanexpectednumberofvisitorsatonetime.In mid &. countryorevenbackcountryareas,designcarryingcapacitymayassistmanagersinmeeting k'A!0 ecologicalintegritygoalsandsatisfyingvisitorexpectations.InPointPeleeNationalPark,for ("2 instance,aboardwalkgivesmanyvisitorsaccesstoareasofthemarshtheywouldotherwisenotsee * anddoessoinamannerthatminimizestheireffectsuponmarshecology.InPacificRimNational c Park,boardwalksandladdershelpvisitorstoexperiencethebackcountryqualitiesoftheWestCoast  Trailwhileservingtominimizetheenvironmentalimpactsoftheirvisits.Especiallyinfrontcountry S ) settings,designcarryingcapacityoffersmanagersofparksandprotectedareasalternativestoactions   whichlimithumanuse )#  3      .Designcarryingcapacityalsoillustratesclearlytheimportanceofthe    purposeofanareaindeterminingathresholdbeyondwhichdegradationoccursorproblemsarise. |R    Asecondvariant,ecologicalcarryingcapacity,ismorefamiliar.Innationalparks,   ecologicalcarryingcapacityreferstothecapabilityofthenaturalenvironmenttowithstandhuman B  use.Ecologicalcarryingcapacity,therefore,representsanearlyformofenvironmentalimpact {  assessment.Whenproposingtodevelopavisitoropportunityinanationalpark,ParksCanadais   requiredtoinvestigatewhetherthedevelopmentwillhaveenvironmentaleffectsand,ifso,takesteps kA tomitigatethem.Whileenvironmentalimpactassessmentmayappearstraightforward,thereare  thornyscientificandmanagementissueswhichrequireattention. 1   Athirdform,socialcarryingcapacity,hasreceivedagooddealofattentionintheparks j literatureandinmanagementpractice.Socialcarryingcapacityisthedesignationgiventothe  observationthatvisitorsrespondtothesocial,aswellasthenatural,environmentinparks.Itfocuses Z0  ontheexperienceswhichvisitorshaveinthepark.Forsomevisitors,toomanyotherpeople,people " whoaretoodifferentintheirinterestsorpeoplewhoaretoodifferentintheirbehavioursconstitute  $ negativeinfluences.Suchnegativeinfluencesdisturbtheirownenjoyment.Managingsocialcarrying  Y& capacityrequiresthatmanagersnotonlyappreciatetheinteractionsofvisitorsinnationalparks,but !( also,thattheyhaveideasaboutwhatthoseinteractionsshouldbe. I#*   Thepresentresearchfocusesuponecologicalcarryingcapacity. $,     X=XXX=B.3.1EcologicalCarryingCapacity#X=XXX=# _  &.   Althoughecologicalcarryingcapacityisthevariantwhichmostobviouslyappliesinpark l'B!0 settings,ithasbeenemployedmuchlessthanitscousinsocialcarryingcapacity.Toappreciatewhy * thisisthecase,onemustunderstandthatdeterminingecologicalcarryingcapacityinvolvesfinding c answerstonotonebutthreequestions.Answersareneededtothefollowing:  eYc  Yc%"0 `   whatistheecologicalimpactofhumanuseinaparticularecosystem?Yc%@݌S )` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Yc"0 `   doestheimpactchangethecharacteroftheecosystem?Yc݌@ ` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Yc"0 `   isthechange,ifany,anacceptablechange?YcӺ݌- ` !` ! Ќ  eThefirstofthesequestionsmaybeansweredbyscientificresearch,assumingthatitispossibleto   developacausalrelationshipbetweenhumanuseandecologicalimpact. j@    Thesecondquestion,however,requiresmoredataandinformation.Whatwasthecondition   oftheecosystembeforeitwasdisturbedbyhumanuse?Wasthatpreviousconditiona naturalstate 0  orwasitalsocausedbysomehumaninterference?Isthecauseofthedisturbancesomethingthat i  nationalparkmanagersmayinfluencethroughtheiractions?Nelson(1968)raisedseveralofthese  questionsinrelationtoBanffNationalParkthreedecadesago.TherecentBanffBowValleyStudy Y/ (Page,Bayley,Cook,GreenandRitchie,1996)hasservedonlytosharpenthem.    Thethirdquestionrequiressomethingcompletelydifferentifitistobeanswered.Itisnot  ascientificquestion;ratheritisa valuesquestion(?+ 4 <DL!X?X=XXX=Becker,Jubenville,BurnettandGraefe,1984)#X=XXX=9#. X An acceptablechangeimpliesthatnationalparkmanagershaveestablishedarangeofdesired  conditionsandcanthenjudgethechange,determiningifitis goodor bad.WhileParksCanada H  hasproducedmanagementplansfornationalparksforanumberofyears,itisevidentfromthe " BanffBowValleyexperiencethatParksCanadahasnotbeenprepareduntilrecentlytojudge  $ whetherthechangestoparkecosystemshavebeendesirableorundesirable. q!G&   ThetrailsintheLakeOHaraareainYohoNationalParkhavebeenthefocusofmonitoring "( effortssince1983(YohoNationalPark,1997).Theareaisapopularonewithbackcountrytravellers. 7$ * Managershopedtobeabletoutilizebaselinedatainordertodirectmaintenanceandrehabilitation %p, effortsonthetrails.Itisrecognizedthathumanuseisresponsiblefortraildegradation.Humanuse & . dataorinformationiscurrentlycollectedthroughthebackcountrypermittingsystem.However,no `(6"0 analysishasbeenconductedwhichmightpinpointthethresholdatwhichhumanusebeginsto )#2 producenegativeenvironmentaleffects.Thus,itisnotthecasethatallthreeoftheecological &+$4  ,7,       carryingcapacityquestionsintheLakeOHaraareaarebeingansweredbythemonitoringprogram. *   KachiandWalker(1999)havesurveyedworkbeingconductedinCanadiannationalparks c onhumanusemanagement.Theirresultsindicatethatafocusonecologicalcarryingcapacityis  common.Forexample,inGwaiiHaanasNationalPark(1999),staffexaminedvisitorimpactson S ) backcountrycampsitesinasubjectivemanner,determiningthat52of75sitesrequiredmanagement   intervention.Apartofthatinterventionincludessettingstandards,whichwhenexceeded,demand    remedialactionsbymanagers.Itisquestionable,however,whethermonitoringbyitselfwillpoint |R  tothecausesofdegradation.Withoutthosecauses,itwouldseemdifficultformanagerstodetermine   whatactionstotakeinresponse. B    Drysdale(1995)outlinesthedatamanagementandmonitoringworkwhichhasbeen {  underwayforsometimeinKejimkujikNationalPark.Whilethisinitiativeisnotfocusedupon   ecologicalcarryingcapacitydirectly,theresultingdatabasesprovidetheparksmanagementteam kA withopportunitiestoundertakeanalysestoprovideanswerstospecific(research)questions.    Dalman(pers.comm.,1999)pointsoutthatinBanffNationalPark,managersorganizetheir 1 effortsbymeansofcarnivoremanagementunits.Theselandscapeunitsprovideaspatialfocus,for j issueidentification,remedialactionandplanning.    ParksCanadaandmanyotherparksagenciesgenerallyhavebeenunabletoanswerquestions Z0  twoandthree.Ecologicalcarryingcapacitythereforehasnotbeenseriouslyappliedinparksand " protectedareas.Therearesigns,however,(e.g.,theKejimkujikdatamanagementinitiative;theLake  $ OHaraTrailMonitoringProgram)thatParksCanadaispreparedtoidentifyacceptablelevelsof  Y& ecologicalintegrity(throughecologicalintegritystatements)andtomanagenationalparksinways !( tomaintainortoattainthemoverthelongterm. I#*   X=XXX=B.40  ARoleforCarryingCapacity#X=XXX=[# anN $,s#s#   Carryingcapacityisnotonlyavenerableidea;itisalsoapopularone,withthepublicand &. protectedareamanagersalike.Nowthatithasbeenexamined,thequestionsremains:doescarrying q'G!0 capacityhavearoleinnationalparkmanagement? ("2   Somewriters,includingWagarhimself(1974),havesuggestedthatperhapsthefocusshould 7* $4 beonconditionsintheenvironment(i.e.,aqualitativeapproach)ratherthanonthelevelofstress +p%6 X m   (i.e.,aquantitativeapproach)beingappliedtotheenvironment(Washburne,1982;Vaske,1994; * Rees,1997).Suchashiftoffocuswouldchangecarryingcapacity,butmightalsorenderitmore c usefultoparkmanagers.Othersarenotinagreement,continuingtoadvocatea traditionalcarrying  capacityapproachtomanaginghumanuseofnaturalenvironmentsforrecreationandtourism(e.g., S ) Butler,FennellandBoyd,1993;WilliamsandGill,1991;Heberlein,Alfano.andVaske,1986).     ShelbyandHeberlein(1984)longagosuggestedanapproachtocarryingcapacitywhichstill    isworthyofattention.Theydefinedcarryingcapacityas: |R  e...thelevelofusebeyondwhichimpactsexceedacceptablelevelsspecifiedby   evaluativestandards(p.441).   eTheirapproach(p.434)requiredmanagerstotakethreeactions: |  eYc  Yc"0 `   specifymanagementparameters(i.e.,somethingthatmanagerscould    manipulate)foranarea;Yc.݌` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Yc"0 `   specifyimpactparametersrelevanttoanarea;andYc)݌` !` ! Ќ  Yc  Yc"0 `   collectdataatregularintervalstodescribetheexistingsituation.Yc݌` !` ! Ќ  eShelbyandHeberleinmaintainedthatonlywithinthiscontextisitreasonabletoemploytheideaof  carryingcapacity.Notethattheydidnotdifferentiatebetweenecologicalandsocialcarrying   capacity.Rather,theyfelttheapproachwasasusefulforoneastheother.Morethanthat,they pF offeredtwootherrealizations:thatcarryingcapacityistiedtoparticularsitesorlandscapes;and,that  socialandecologicalexpressionsofcarryingcapacitymaybecloselyrelated. 6     Elsewhere,therecognitionofthemultipurposenatureofparkmanagementhasleadtheU.S. o" NationalParkServicetodefinecarryingcapacityinthefollowingmanner:  $ e...carryingcapacityisthetypeandlevelofvisitorusethatcanbeaccommodated _"5& whilesustainingthedesiredresourceandsocialconditionsthatcomplementthe L#"' purposeofaparkunitanditsmanagementobjectives(NationalParkService,1997, 9$( p.30). &%) eThelinkbetweencarryingcapacityandmanagementpurposehasseldombeenmoreovertlystated. ' + Suchadefinitionstillcontainsthekernelsofcarryingcapacityidentifiedearlier.Italsopaysattention c(9"- tomanagementpurposes,facilitatingresultsbasedmanagementandaccountability.Moreover,the )#/ definitionhintsatresponsestocarryingcapacityissuesasbeingmorethanlimitinghumanuse.Cole, )+$1 PetersenandLucas(1987)presentseveralotherresponseswhichmaybeeithermoreappropriateor ,b&3 moreacceptableinthecircumstances.Theseotheractionsincludechangingthetimingoftheuse, * changingtheactivity,changingthebehaviour(s)whichcausetheproblem,hardeningthesitewhere c theproblemisoccurringandrestoringsiteconditions.Ifcarryingcapacitytobeusefulinnational  parkmanagementinCanada,thesedefinitionsmustguideitsimplementation.CE.,US.,] S )   AtKejimkujikNationalPark,itisevidentthatmanagersconcernoverdeteriorating   conditionsinthebackcountryareasoftheparkleaddirectlytoastrategydesignedtocontrolimpacts    bylimitingthemtospecificsites.Inthemanagersjudgement,conditionshaddeterioratedbeyond |R  anunstatedlevelofacceptability.   UXX= C.0  Methodology #X=XU#{ s#s#  C.10  Data >s#s#   KejimkujikNationalParkrequiresthatpermitsbeobtainedforbackcountrycampingand v travel.Asaconsequence,thenationalparkpossessesacomprehensivedatabaseofpeopleandtheir  activitiesinthebackcountryoveranumberofyears.Afterbeingconvertedtoelectronicformat, f< permitdataforthe1995operatingseasonwereusedtomeasurevisitationatcampsitesandalongtrail  segments. ,   Ecologicalimpactscausedbybackcountryusemightbefoundalonganumberofdimensions: e  vegetation,wildlife,physicalfeatures.Datacollectionforthepurposesofmeasuringecological " impactfocusedonthefollowingvegetationandphysicalvariables:speciespresence(byname); U+$ speciesnumbers;matdepth;basalareaoftreessampled;and,theareaofobviousimpacton  & campsitesandtrails.Theserawdataallowedtheresearchteamtocomputemeasuresofspecies "( diversityandspeciesrichnessforeachstation.Inaddition,anyexoticspecieswereidentifiedand ~#T* theirlocation(s)fixed.Treesandshrubsalsowerenoted. )#  4       $,   X=XXX=Afteridentifying10campsitesand10trailsegmentswheresamplingwouldoccur,data D& . collection#X=XXX=#X=XXX=occurredduringthe1999fieldseason.Thesamplingprotocol(seeAppendix1,Figures '}!0 2,3and4)wasalteredsomewhatasaresultofconsultationswithParksCanadastaff(especially * duringtheOctober,1998meetingatKejimkujikNationalPark)andasaresultofpreliminary c #X=XXX=o#X=XXX=measurementsofseveralplotsusingtheprotocolduringthefirstfieldseason.Plotsizewas  maintainedat15metres(width)by30metres(depth),withstationsestablishedat5metreintervals. S ) Althoughstationshadbeenestablishedalongeachofthethreecolumns,samplingoccurredalong   onlytwocolumns,therebyreducingthesamplingstationsto12from18.Ateachstation,four    cardinalarmswereselectedbaseduponarandomcompasshearingfromthestationstake.Eacharm |R  wascomposedoftwolines;ninesamplesweredrawnalongeachoftheselines.Samples,then,   totalled72perstationand864perplot.Eachplotwasalsodescribedinqualitativetermsand B  sketched.#X=XXX=# {   C2.0  Analysis  s#s#   Dataanalysiscomprisedfourstages.Inthefirststage,rawdatawereconvertedintoforms j@ moreamenabletothefinaltwoanalyticalstages,usingtherepeatedmeasuresanalysis.Forhuman  usedata,thisstageconstitutedconvertingbackcountrypermitdatatoelectronicformatandthen, 0 usinggraphtheory(ComplexityInternationalpaper)toidentifyuseintensityatnodes(campsites)and i alongconnectionsamongthem(trailsegments).Thistopologyofbackcountryrecreationuse  (accordingtothe1995permitdata)allowedtheresearcherstocontributeahumanusevariablefor Y/  eventualinclusionintherepeatedmeasuresanalysis.Indicesforplantspeciesdiversityandrichness " werecomputedusingtherawvegetativedata. $   Inthesecondstage,regressionanalysiswasusedtoexaminecauseandeffectrelationships  X& betweenhumanuse(theindependentvariables)andareasofobviousimpactsoncampsitesandtrail !( segments(thedependent). H#*   Thethirdandfourthstagesbroughtrepeatedmeasuresanalysisintoplay.Repeatedmeasures $, analysishasbeenwidelyusedinbothsocialscienceandnaturalsciencetoexaminechangein &. variablesofinterest,overtimeoroverspace(Nemec,1996;Minke,1997).Variablesofinternestin q'G!0 thisstudywerethosedescribingvegetation,depthofmaterialonthesoilandtrees.Measuresofthese ("2 variableswererepeatedatthedistancesestablishedintheplotdesign,thehypothesisbeingthatany 7* $4 ecologicaleffectsofhumanusewoulddiminishwithdistanceawayfromtheimpactedarea(i.e.,the +p%6 campsiteortrailsegment).Repeatedmeasuresusesanaylsisofvariance(ANOVA)tocomparethe * samemeasures(ofvegetation)atdifferentdistances.ThestrengthoftheresultingFstatisticisused c toindicatesignificantdifferencesatconventionallevelsofprobability(P=.05or.01).  ЀUXX= D.0  TheEcologicalImpactofBackcountryRecreationinKejimkujikNational   Park #X=XU#  s#s# X=XXX=  Theresultsoftheanalysespresentedherefocusonthreesignificantaspectsofthehuman   ecologyofthenationalpark: (  "J3"  J3v23  0    relationshipsbetweenhumanusevariablesandtheareaofobviousimpactoncampsitesand a  trailsegments;J3v݌ s#s# Ќ  "J3"  J323  0    relationshipsbetweendistancefromareasofimpactoncampsiteandtrailsandecological Q' variables;and,J3݌s#s# Ќ  "J3"  J323  0    therelationshipbetweenhumanusevariablesandecologicalvariables.J3 ݌s#s# Ќ  D.1AreasofObviousImpacts  zP   Thisanalysisrelatesthemeasuredareaofobviousimpactoncampsitesandtrailsegments  havingplotsto: ? "J3"  J323  0    thetotalnumberofvisitorsusingthecampsitesortrailsegments;J3݌xs#s# Ќ  "J3 "  J323  0    thetotalnumberofpartiesusingthecampsitesortrailsegments;and,J3݌!s#s# Ќ  "J3 "  J323  0    themaximumpartysizeusingthecampsitesortrailsegments.J3݌h>#s#s# Ќ    Itwashypothesizedthatthetotalnumberofvisitorsusingacampsiteoveraseasonwould  % bepositivelycorrelatedwiththesizeoftheareaofobviousimpactonthesite.Furthermore,this ."' relationshipwasthoughttobecausal,withthesizeoftheimpactedareadependentuponthenumber#X=XXX=# #g) X=XXX=ofvisitors.Figure2confirmsboththepositiverelationshipbetweenthesetwovariablesaswellas#X=XXX=&# $+ X=XXX=itsdirection#X=XXX=#.WithanR2of.7775,thesetwovariablesarecloselyrelated.Thisrelationshipisa W&- - statisticallysignificantone,despitetheapparentsmallsamplesize,withanFvalueof27.959, '!/ significantattheP=.001level.Theintensityofvisitoruseofthesebackcountrycampsitesclearly )"1 hasadirectimpactupontheareaoccupiedbythecampsites. *V$3    +%5 X mm   x1VB2.p|0Y? `VE Y??> Yx   s#s#                                                                    s#s#    Anotherhumanusevariable,thenumberofparties,mayberelatedtotheareaofobvious j impact.Figure3showstherelationship.However,withanFvalue3.462,therelationshipisnot  statisticallysignificant. Z0    Athirdhumanusevariable,maximumpartysize,wasalsorelatedtoareaofobviousimpact " oncampsite,withtheresultshowninFigure4.Therelationshipbetweenthesetwovariablesis  $ positive,butnotparticularlystrong.TheFstatistic,at3.650,isnotstatisticallysignificant.  Y&  +q%6 Їx1B2.p|0lg `VE v Fzx   s#s#                           me                                              k#k#     k#k#     x1B2.p|0c `VE% ce `x                                                            +q%6   Їx1$AB2.p|0  `VE  y  x   k#k#                                                                  k#k#    Thesesamehumanusevariablescanbeassociatedwiththeareaofobviousimpactalongtrail Z0  segments.Figure5illustratestherelationshipbetweenimpactarea(width)andthenumberof " visitors.WithanR2of.5973,therelationshipbetweenthesetwovariablesisnotasstrongasitwas  $ betweenthenumberofvisitorsandtheareaofobviousimpactforcampsites.However,theF  Y& statistic,withavalueof11.868,isstatisticallysignificantatthe.009levelofprobability.Notethe !( twooutlyingtrailsegments(Trailplots8and10),onenoticeablyabovethelineofbestfit,theother I#* below.Bothareanomalous.Ifremovedfromtheanalysis,theresultisFigure6. $,  +q%6    k#k#                    x1X{B 2.p|0K? `VE K??> Cx                                                        k#k#  ItisclearthatremovingTrailPlots8and10resultsinamuchhigherR2value,at.9591.TheF  statistic,withavalueof140.783ishighlysignificant,beyondthe.001levelofprobability. Z0    Thesecondhumanusevariable,numberofgroups,isrelatedtotheareaofobviousimpact " alongtrailsegments.LeavingTrailPlots8and10outoftheanalysisagain,therelationshipbetween  $ thenumberofgroupsandtheareaofobviousimpactalongtrailsegmentsisrepresentedbyFigure  Y& 7.Oncemore,ahighR2of.9554,indicativeofaclosepositiverelationship,isfound.TheFstatistic !( forthisregressionis128.478,significantbeyondthe.001levelofprobability. I#*  +q%6 Їx1|B 2.p|0!-D `VE% !-3-Dx k#k#                 x1B 2.p|0" `VE "e ~x                                                                   +q%6   Finally,themaximumpartysizewaspairedwiththeareaofobviousimpactalongtrailsegments.The * resultispresentedasFigure8.Thetwovariablesshowamoderatelevelofcorrelation,withanR2 c of.5308.TheFstatisticof6.787issignificantatthe.04levelofprobability.    Insummary,theareasofobviousimpactonbackcountrycampsitesandalongtrailsegments S ) ishighlydependentonthreehumanusevariables.Forbothcampsitesandtrailsegments,thearea   ofobviousimpactgrowsasthenumberofvisitorsgrow.Knowingthenumberofvisitorsissufficient    tounderstandandtopredicttheareaofobviousimpactoncampsitesandalongtrailsegments. |R   D.2DistanceAwayFromImpactedCampsitesandTrailSegments      Thissectionreportsontheinfluenceofdistanceawayfromimpactedcampsitesandtrail A  segmentsonspecificecologicalvariables(depthofmaterialonthesoil,basalareaoftreessampled, z  speciesrichness,speciesdiversityandplantdensity)createdfromtherawdatacollectedfromthe   plotsduringthesummer,1999.Asageneralhypothesis,itwasanticipatedthattheecologicalimpact j@ associatedwithcampsitesandtrailsegmentswouldlessenanddisappearasthedistanceoverthose  campsitesandtrailsegmentsincreased. 0   Lookingfirsttothedepthofmaterialonthesoil,Table1showsthatthedepthofmaterialon i thesoilwithinalltheplotsissignificantlydifferentovertheplotdistance.Thereare,however,no  significantinteractioneffectswhencampsiteandtrailsegmentplotsareconsideredseparately. Y/  USCE.,'XX= > '  Table1:UnivariateTests,DepthofMaterialontheSoilwithallplots(MATDEP)andwith " CampsitesandTrailSegments(MATDEP*IMPACT)  ]# #X X  >(##X=X XX(#CE.,US.,(USCE.,'XX= > '*] ddxdd <(k#k#],A,,,$,,,+  1'R($R( 1#X X  >!*#Mk  XXSource 'R(%3 'Ѐ 'R(&3 'TypeIIISumof R(' Squares '(3 'df 'R()3 'MeanSquare 'R(*3 'F 'R(+3 'Sig. R(,   ?5-  ?MATDEP ' Z.3 'SphericityAssumed ' Z/3 '324.151 ' Z03 '5 ' Z13 '64.830 ' Z23 '2.881 ' Z33 '.019  Z4   ?5!5  ?Ѐ '!63 'GreenhouseGeisser '!73 '324.151 '!83 '3.166 '!93 '102.389 '!:3 '2.881 '!;3 '.041 !<   ?5O"%=  ?Ѐ '">3 'HuynhFeldt '"?3 '324.151 '"@3 '4.134 '"A3 '78.419 '"B3 '2.881 '"C3 '.027 "D   ?5#WE  ?Ѐ '$F3 'Lowerbound '$G3 '324.151 '$H3 '1.000 '$I3 '324.151 '$J3 '2.881 '$K3 '.107 $L   ?5$M  ?MATDEP* L%"N IMPACT '%O3 'SphericityAssumed 'L%"P3 '221.531 'L%"Q3 '5 'L%"R3 '44.306 'L%"S3 '1.969 'L%"T3 '.091 L%"U   ?5%V  ?Ѐ '~&T W3 'GreenhouseGeisser '~&T X3 '221.531 '~&T Y3 '3.166 '~&T Z3 '69.975 '~&T [3 '1.969 '~&T \3 '.126 ~&T ]   ?5' ^  ?Ѐ ''!_3 'HuynhFeldt ''!`3 '221.531 ''!a3 '4.134 ''!b3 '53.593 ''!c3 '1.969 ''!d3 '.106 '!e   ?5I("f  ?Ѐ '("g3 'Lowerbound '("h3 '221.531 '("i3 '1.000 '("j3 '221.531 '("k3 '1.969 '("l3 '.178 ("m   ?5{)Q#n  ?Error(MATDE *#o P) '*$p3 'SphericityAssumed '*#q3 '2025.541 '*#r3 '90 '*#s3 '22.506 '*#t3 'Ѐ '*#u3 'Ѐ *#v   ?5*$w  ?Ѐ 'F+%x3 'GreenhouseGeisser 'F+%y3 '2025.541 'F+%z3 '56.986 'F+%{3 '35.545 'F+%|3 'Ѐ 'F+%}3 'Ѐ F+%~   ?5+%  ?Ѐ 'x,N&3 'HuynhFeldt 'x,N&3 '2025.541 'x,N&3 '74.404 'x,N&3 '27.223 'x,N&3 'Ѐ 'x,N&3 'Ѐ x,N&   ?5*  ?Ѐ '3 'Lowerbound '3 '2025.541 '3 '18.000 '3 '112.530 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    -#!\2   -#X X Mk+##X=X XX@*#CE.,US.,*X XXX= >  XXUSCE.,((#X X  >?##X=X XX?#CE.,US.,?However,Table2indicatesthatthehypothesisofreducedimpactawayfromcampsitesandtrail   segmentsholdstrue.       Table2:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,DepthofMaterialontheSoil(MATDEP)   V USCE.,'XX= > '* d dAA$$k#k#,A,,b,,n,,g+  1'   1#X X  >xA#Mk  XXSource ' 3 'MATDEP ' 3 'TypeIIISumofSquares ' 3 'df ' 3 'MeanSquare ' 3 'F ' 3 'Sig.     ?5{ Q  ?MATDEP '3 'Level1vs.Later '3 '287.377 '3 '1 '3 '287.377 '3 '7.207 '3 '.015    ?5   ?Ѐ 'N$ !3 'Level2vs.Later 'N$ "3 '9.998 'N$ #3 '1 'N$ $3 '9.998 'N$ %3 '.434 'N$ &3 '.519 N$ '   ?5 (  ?Ѐ 'V )3 'Level3vs.Later 'V *3 '.307 'V +3 '1 'V ,3 '.307 'V -3 '.011 'V .3 '.919 V /   ?5 0  ?Ѐ ' 13 'Level4vs.Later ' 23 '67.070 ' 33 '1 ' 43 '67.070 ' 53 '2.839 ' 63 '.109  7   ?5K! 8  ?Ѐ ' 93 'Level5vs.Level6 ' :3 '63.457 ' ;3 '1 ' <3 '63.457 ' =3 '1.363 ' >3 '.258  ?   ?5}S @  ?MATDEP*  A IMPACT 'B3 'Level1vs.Later ' C3 '43.697 ' D3 '1 ' E3 '43.697 ' F3 '1.096 ' G3 '.309  H   " ?5I  ?Ѐ 'HJ3 'Level2vs.Later 'HK3 '2.639 'HL3 '1 'HM3 '2.639 'HN3 '.114 'HO3 '.739 HP   ?5Q  ?Ѐ 'zPR3 'Level3vs.Later 'zPS3 '72.121 'zPT3 '1 'zPU3 '72.121 'zPV3 '2.479 'zPW3 '.133 zPX   ?5Y  ?Ѐ 'Z3 'Level4vs.Later '[3 '29.403 '\3 '1 ']3 '29.403 '^3 '1.245 '_3 '.279 `   ?5Ea  ?Ѐ 'b3 'Level5vs.Level6 'c3 '218.626 'd3 '1 'e3 '218.626 'f3 '4.695 'g3 '.044 h   ?5{Qi  ?Error(MATDE j P) 'k3 'Level1vs.Later 'l3 '717.720 'm3 '18 'n3 '39.873 'o3 'Ѐ 'p3 'Ѐ q   ?5r  ?Ѐ 'J s3 'Level2vs.Later 'J t3 '415.076 'J u3 '18 'J v3 '23.060 'J w3 'Ѐ 'J x3 'Ѐ J y   ?5z  ?Ѐ '|R{3 'Level3vs.Later '|R|3 '523.711 '|R}3 '18 '|R~3 '29.095 '|R3 'Ѐ '|R3 'Ѐ |R   ?5  ?Ѐ '3 'Level4vs.Later '3 '425.246 '3 '18 '3 '23.625 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    ?5G  ?Ѐ '3 'Level5vs.Level6 '3 '838.198 '3 '18 '3 '46.567 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    -#!yO   -#X X MkC##X=X XXA#CE.,US.,fAC@Inthefirsthalfofthistable,onlythefirstlevelofthe30metreplotdepthshowsarelativelyhighF u!K value(7.207),withasignificancelevelof.015.Thedepthofmaterialonthesoiladjacentto " campsitesandtrailsegmentsisaffectedbyproximitytothosesitesandsegments,butonlyinthe ;$ partsoftheplotsimmediatelyadjacent. %t   ThesecondpartofTable1,MATDEP*IMPACT,considerswhetherthedepthofmaterialon '  thesoildiffersfromcampsitetotrailsegmentoverthesamedistance.Onlyonestatistically d(:" significantdifferexists,betweendistance5and6,andthatattributabletocampsites. )#   Thesecondecologicalvariableconsideredwasthebasalareaoftreesinthesample(Table *+% 3).Univariateanalysisrevealedthattherewerenoeffectsduetodistanceforallplotsorfrom ,c& campsitesandtrailsegmentplotsseparately. * USCE.,'XX= > '  Table3:UnivariateTests,BasalAreaofTreesWithinallPlots(TREES)andwith#X X  >`##X=X XX$`#'XX= > 'CampsiteandTrail c SegmentPlots(TREES*IMPACT)  X. U`C`* ddAAbbnnggk#k#,A,,?,,,,+  1'# #  1#X X  >`#Mk  XXSource '# 3 'Ѐ '# 3 'TypeIIISumof #  Squares ' 3 'df '#  3 'MeanSquare '#  3 'F '#  3 'Sig. #     ?5    ?TREES 'U +3 'SphericityAssumed 'U +3 '1792.166 'U +3 '5 'U +3 '358.433 'U +3 '.879 'U +3 '.499 U +   ?5   ?Ѐ ' ]3 'GreenhouseGeisser ' ]3 '1792.166 ' ]3 '4.357 ' ]3 '411.329 ' ]3 '.879 ' ]3 '.488  ]   ?5   ?Ѐ ' 3 'HuynhFeldt ' 3 '1792.166 '  3 '5.000 ' !3 '358.433 ' "3 '.879 ' #3 '.499  $   ?5R (%  ?Ѐ ' &3 'Lowerbound ' '3 '1792.166 ' (3 '1.000 ' )3 '1792.166 ' *3 '.879 ' +3 '.361  ,   ?5Z-  ?TREES* . IMPACT ' /3 'SphericityAssumed '03 '2748.843 '13 '5 '23 '549.769 '33 '1.348 '43 '.252 5   ?5 6  ?Ѐ 'O% 73 'GreenhouseGeisser 'O% 83 '2748.843 'O% 93 '4.357 'O% :3 '630.900 'O% ;3 '1.348 'O% <3 '.257 O% =   ?5 >  ?Ѐ 'W ?3 'HuynhFeldt 'W @3 '2748.843 'W A3 '5.000 'W B3 '549.769 'W C3 '1.348 'W D3 '.252 W E   ?5 F  ?Ѐ ' G3 'Lowerbound ' H3 '2748.843 ' I3 '1.000 ' J3 '2748.843 ' K3 '1.348 ' L3 '.261  M   ?5L" N  ?Error(TREES) ' O3 'SphericityAssumed ' P3 '36703.153 ' Q3 '90 ' R3 '407.813 ' S3 'Ѐ ' T3 'Ѐ  U   ?5~TV  ?Ѐ 'W3 'GreenhouseGeisser 'X3 '36703.153 'Y3 '78.426 'Z3 '467.995 '[3 'Ѐ '\3 'Ѐ ]   ?5^  ?Ѐ 'I_3 'HuynhFeldt 'I`3 '36703.153 'Ia3 '90.000 'Ib3 '407.813 'Ic3 'Ѐ 'Id3 'Ѐ Ie   ?5f  ?Ѐ '{Qg3 'Lowerbound '{Qh3 '36703.153 '{Qi3 '18.000 '{Qj3 '2039.064 '{Qk3 'Ѐ '{Ql3 'Ѐ {Qm   -#!n  -#X X Mkc##X=X XXa#CE.,US.,_c  Plantdiversitywasthethirdecologicalvariabletobeexaminedoverthedistanceoftheplot p depth(Table4).Nosignificantvariationduetodistancewasdeterminedwhenalltheplotswere sIr takentogether,butcampsiteandtrailsegmentplotswereshowntovarydifferentlyovertheplot t distance. 9v USCE.,'XX= > '   Table4:UnivariateAnalysis,Diversity(DIVERSIT)withallplotsandwithCampsiteandTrail rx SegmentPlots(DIVERSIT*IMPACT) #X X  > y##X=X XX*y#'XX= > ' g =y ^yIy* d dAA??k#k#,A,,,f,,,+  1'2!z2! 1#X X  >Dz#Mk  XXSource '2!{3 'Ѐ '2!|3 'TypeIIISumof 2!} Squares '!~3 'df '2!3 'MeanSquare '2!3 'F '2!3 'Sig. 2!   ?5!  ?DIVERSIT 'd":3 'SphericityAssumed 'd":3 '4.196E03 'd":3 '5 'd":3 '8.393E04 'd":3 '.967 'd":3 '.443 d":   ?5"  ?Ѐ '#l3 'GreenhouseGeisser '#l3 '4.196E03 '#l3 '2.655 '#l3 '1.581E03 '#l3 '.967 '#l3 '.408 #l   ?5/$  ?Ѐ '$3 'HuynhFeldt '$3 '4.196E03 '$3 '3.330 '$3 '1.260E03 '$3 '.967 '$3 '.421 $   ?5a%7  ?Ѐ '%3 'Lowerbound '%3 '4.196E03 '%3 '1.000 '%3 '4.196E03 '%3 '.967 '%3 '.339 %   ?5&i   ?DIVERSIT* ,'! IMPACT ''!3 'SphericityAssumed ','!3 '1.239E02 ','!3 '5 ','!3 '2.478E03 ','!3 '2.854 ','!3 '.019 ,'!   ?5'!  ?Ѐ '^(4"3 'GreenhouseGeisser '^(4"3 '1.239E02 '^(4"3 '2.655 '^(4"3 '4.667E03 '^(4"3 '2.854 '^(4"3 '.053 ^(4"   ?5("  ?Ѐ ')f#3 'HuynhFeldt ')f#3 '1.239E02 ')f#3 '3.330 ')f#3 '3.721E03 ')f#3 '2.854 ')f#3 '.040 )f#   ?5)*#  ?Ѐ '*$3 'Lowerbound '*$3 '1.239E02 '*$3 '1.000 '*$3 '1.239E02 '*$3 '2.854 '*$3 '.108 *$   ?5[+1%  ?Error(DIVERS +% IT) ',c&3 'SphericityAssumed '+%3 '7.814E02 '+%3 '90 '+%3 '8.682E04 '+%3 'Ѐ '+%3 'Ѐ +%   ?5,c&  ?Ѐ '*3 'GreenhouseGeisser '*3 '7.814E02 '*3 '47.784 '*3 '1.635E03 '*3 'Ѐ '*3 'Ѐ *   ?5  ?Ѐ '\2 3 'HuynhFeldt '\2 3 '7.814E02 '\2 3 '59.932 '\2 3 '1.304E03 '\2 3 'Ѐ '\23 'Ѐ \2   ?5  ?Ѐ 'd3 'Lowerbound 'd3 '7.814E02 'd3 '18.000 'd3 '4.341E03 'd3 'Ѐ 'd3 'Ѐ d   -#!'   -#X X Mk|##X=X XXcz#CE.,US.,x|Diversityissignificantlydifferentbetweencampsitesandtrailsegments(DIVERST*IMPACT),with #  diversityintheareaimmediatelyadjacenttothecampsiteslowerthanontrailsegments(Table5).  \ USCE.,'XX= > '   Table5:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,Diversity    >m* d dAAff##,A,,,K,,g,+  1'  1#X X  >#Mk  XXSource '!3 'DIVERSIT '"3 'TypeIIISumofSquares '#3 'df '$3 'MeanSquare '%3 'F '&3 'Sig. '   ?5 (  ?DIVERSIT 'K! )3 'Level1vs.Later 'K! *3 '2.655E03 'K! +3 '1 'K! ,3 '2.655E03 'K! -3 '1.131 'K! .3 '.302 K! /   ?5 0  ?Ѐ '}S 13 'Level2vs.Later '}S 23 '5.375E04 '}S 33 '1 '}S 43 '5.375E04 '}S 53 '.597 '}S 63 '.450 }S 7   ?5 8  ?Ѐ ' 93 'Level3vs.Later ' :3 '1.110E04 ' ;3 '1 ' <3 '1.110E04 ' =3 '.279 ' >3 '.604  ?   ?5H @  ?Ѐ ' A3 'Level4vs.Later ' B3 '1.311E03 ' C3 '1 ' D3 '1.311E03 ' E3 '.901 ' F3 '.355  G   ?5zPH  ?Ѐ 'I3 'Level5vs.Level6 'J3 '1.194E03 'K3 '1 'L3 '1.194E03 'M3 '1.508 'N3 '.235 O   ?5P  ?DIVERSIT* EQ IMPACT 'R3 'Level1vs.Later 'ES3 '1.383E02 'ET3 '1 'EU3 '1.383E02 'EV3 '5.893 'EW3 '.026 EX   ?5Y  ?Ѐ 'UZ3 'Level2vs.Later 'U[3 '1.518E04 'U\3 '1 'U]3 '1.518E04 'U^3 '.169 'U_3 '.686 U`   ?5a  ?Ѐ 'b3 'Level3vs.Later 'c3 '3.618E05 'd3 '1 'e3 '3.618E05 'f3 '.091 'g3 '.767 h   ?5J i  ?Ѐ 'j3 'Level4vs.Later 'k3 '4.714E04 'l3 '1 'm3 '4.714E04 'n3 '.324 'o3 '.576 p   ?5|Rq  ?Ѐ 'r3 'Level5vs.Level6 's3 '7.934E04 't3 '1 'u3 '7.934E04 'v3 '1.002 'w3 '.330 x   ?5y  ?Error(DIVERS Gz IT) '{3 'Level1vs.Later 'G|3 '4.225E02 'G}3 '18 'G~3 '2.347E03 'G3 'Ѐ 'G3 'Ѐ G   ?5  ?Ѐ 'yO3 'Level2vs.Later 'yO3 '1.620E02 'yO3 '18 'yO3 '9.002E04 'yO3 'Ѐ 'yO3 'Ѐ yO   ?5  ?iӀ '3 'Level3vs.Later '3 '7.171E03 '3 '18 '3 '3.984E04 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    ?5D  ?Ѐ '3 'Level4vs.Later '3 '2.619E02 '3 '18 '3 '1.455E03 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    ?5v L  ?Ѐ '!3 'Level5vs.Level6 '!3 '1.425E02 '!3 '18 '!3 '7.916E04 '!3 'Ѐ '!3 'Ѐ !   -#!!~   -#X X MkJ##X=X XXΑ#CE.,US.,Ӏ A"   Thenextecologicalvariabletobeexploredwithdistancewasplantdensity.Table6shows #z thatthereisnoeffectofdistanceonplantdensitywhenallplotsareconsideredatonce,butthereis % astrongdifferencebetweencampsiteplotsandtrailsegmentplotsinrelationtoplantdensitywhen j&@  theyareconsideredseparately. '!  +% " }   USCE.,'XX= > '  Table6:UnivariateAnalysis,PlantDensitywithallPlots(DENSITY)andwithCampsiteandTrail  SegmentPlots(DENSITY*IMPACT)   I7* ddAAKKgg##,A,4,,,,,+  1' 1#X X  >#Mk  XXSource '3 'Ѐ '3 'TypeIIISumof  Squares '5 V3 'df ' 3 'MeanSquare ' 3 'F ' 3 'Sig.     ?55 V   ?DENSITY ' 3 'SphericityAssumed ' 3 '4745.819 ' 3 '5 ' 3 '949.164 ' 3 '.859 ' 3 '.512     ?5g   ?Ѐ ' !3 'GreenhouseGeisser ' !3 '4745.819 ' !3 '2.968 ' !3 '1599.079 ' !3 '.859 ' !3 '.467  !   ?5   ?Ѐ '2 S3 'HuynhFeldt '2 S3 '4745.819 '2 S 3 '3.816 '2 S!3 '1243.789 '2 S"3 '.859 '2 S#3 '.489 2 S$   ?5 %  ?Ѐ 'd &3 'Lowerbound 'd '3 '4745.819 'd (3 '1.000 'd )3 '4745.819 'd *3 '.859 'd +3 '.366 d ,   ?5 -  ?DENSITY* . IMPACT '/P /3 'SphericityAssumed '03 '31742.219 '13 '5 '23 '6348.444 '33 '5.744 '43 '.000 5   ?5/P 6  ?Ѐ ' 73 'GreenhouseGeisser ' 83 '31742.219 ' 93 '2.968 ' :3 '10695.377 ' ;3 '5.744 ' <3 '.002  =   ?5a >  ?Ѐ ' ?3 'HuynhFeldt ' @3 '31742.219 ' A3 '3.816 ' B3 '8319.034 ' C3 '5.744 ' D3 '.001  E   ?5 F  ?Ѐ ',M G3 'Lowerbound ',M H3 '31742.219 ',M I3 '1.000 ',M J3 '31742.219 ',M K3 '5.744 ',M L3 '.028 ,M M   ?5 N  ?Error(DENSIT ^ O Y) 'P3 'SphericityAssumed '^ Q3 '99463.837 '^ R3 '90 '^ S3 '1105.154 '^ T3 'Ѐ '^ U3 'Ѐ ^ V   ?5W  ?Ѐ 'X3 'GreenhouseGeisser 'Y3 '99463.837 'Z3 '53.421 '[3 '1861.879 '\3 'Ѐ ']3 'Ѐ ^   ?5)J_  ?Ѐ '`3 'HuynhFeldt 'a3 '99463.837 'b3 '68.681 'c3 '1448.199 'd3 'Ѐ 'e3 'Ѐ f   ?5[|g  ?Ѐ 'h3 'Lowerbound 'i3 '99463.837 'j3 '18.000 'k3 '5525.769 'l3 'Ѐ 'm3 'Ѐ n   -#!o  -#X X Mk##X=X XX#CE.,US.,3Thatpatterncarriesthroughintotherepeatedmeasuresanalysis,wherenoeffectsofdistanceare q visibleoverall.  s USCE.,'XX= > '   Table7:RepeatedMeasuresAnalysis,PlantDensity #X X  >##X=X XX#'XX= > ' Opu * d dAA44##,A, ,,y,?,,+  1'w 1#X X  >#Mk  XXSource 'x3 'DENSITY 'y3 'TypeIIISumofSquares 'z3 'df '{3 'MeanSquare '|3 'F '}3 'Sig. ~   ?59  ?DENSITY '3 'Level1vs.Later '3 '529.421 '3 '1 '3 '529.421 '3 '.280 '3 '.603    ?5Jk  ?Ѐ '3 'Level2vs.Later '3 '1369.513 '3 '1 '3 '1369.513 '3 '.681 '3 '.420    ?5|   ?Ѐ '!63 'Level3vs.Later '!63 '164.356 '!63 '1 '!63 '164.356 '!63 '.278 '!63 '.604 !6   ?5!  ?Ѐ 'G"h3 'Level4vs.Later 'G"h3 '4628.403 'G"h3 '1 'G"h3 '4628.403 'G"h3 '2.626 'G"h3 '.123 G"h   ?5"  ?Ѐ 'y#3 'Level5vs.Level6 'y#3 '.313 'y#3 '1 'y#3 '.313 'y#3 '.000 'y#3 '.988 y#   ?5$3  ?DENSITY* $ IMPACT 'D%e3 'Level1vs.Later '$3 '21523.361 '$3 '1 '$3 '21523.361 '$3 '11.389 '$3 '.003 $   ?5H%i  ?Ѐ '% 3 'Level2vs.Later '% 3 '2040.200 '% 3 '1 '% 3 '2040.200 '% 3 '1.014 '% 3 '.327 %    ?5~&   ?Ѐ ''8!3 'Level3vs.Later ''8!3 '4681.800 ''8!3 '1 ''8!3 '4681.800 ''8!3 '7.927 ''8!3 '.011 '8!   ?5'!  ?Ѐ 'Q(r"3 'Level4vs.Later 'Q(r"3 '12890.503 'Q(r"3 '1 'Q(r"3 '12890.503 'Q(r"3 '7.314 'Q(r"3 '.015 Q(r"   ?5(#  ?Ѐ ')#3 'Level5vs.Level6 ')#3 '137.813 ')#3 '1 ')#3 '137.813 ')#3 '.095 ')#3 '.761 )#   ?5$*E$  ?Error(DENSIT *$ Y) 'V+w%3 'Level1vs.Later '*$3 '34016.109 '*$3 '18 '*$3 '1889.784 '*$3 'Ѐ '*$3 'Ѐ *$   ?5V+w%  ?Ѐ '+&3 'Level2vs.Later '+&3 '36216.131 '+&3 '18 '+&3 '2012.007 '+&3 'Ѐ '+&3 'Ѐ +&   ?5,&  ?Ѐ '3 'Level3vs.Later '3 '10630.678 '3 '18 '3 '590.593 '3 'Ѐ '3 'Ѐ    ?5x  ?Ѐ '2 3 'Level4vs.Later '2 3 '31725.906 '2 3 '18 '2 3 '1762.550 '2 3 'Ѐ '23 'Ѐ 2   ?5  ?Ѐ 'Cd3 'Level5vs.Level6 'Cd3 '26041.125 'Cd3 '18 'Cd3 '1446.729 'Cd3 'Ѐ 'Cd3 'Ѐ Cd   -#!   -#X X Mk##X=X XX#CE.,US.,However,whencampsitesandtrailsegmentsweredifferentiatedintheanalysis   (DENSITY*IMPACT),significanteffectswerefound.Areasadjacenttocampsitesexhibitedlower ; \ plantdensity,withtheareaimmediatelyadjacentshowingthegreatestdifference.     PlantspeciesrichnesswasthenextvariabletobeconsideredinTable5.However,noeffect "  ofdistancefromthecampsitesand/ortrailsegmentswasnoted. d " USCE.,'XX= > '   Table8:UnivariateAnalysis,SpeciesRichnesswithallplots(SPRICH)andwithCampsiteandTrail  $ SegmentPlots(SPRICH*IMPACT) #X X  >(##X=X XXG#'XX= > '  % #X X  >f##X=X XX#CE.,US.,USCE.,'XX= > '* ddAA  yy??##,A,~,,,,7,f+  1']~ &]~  1#X X  >+#Mk  XXSource ']~ '3 'Ѐ ']~ (3 'TypeIIISumof ]~ ) Squares '*3 'df ']~ +3 'MeanSquare ']~ ,3 'F ']~ -3 'Sig. ]~ .   ?5/  ?SP_RICH '03 'SphericityAssumed '13 '8.767 '23 '5 '33 '1.753 '43 '.658 '53 '.656 6   ?5(I7  ?Ѐ '83 'GreenhouseGeisser '93 '8.767 ':3 '3.579 ';3 '2.450 '<3 '.658 '=3 '.607 >   ?5Z{?  ?Ѐ '@3 'HuynhFeldt 'A3 '8.767 'B3 '4.824 'C3 '1.817 'D3 '.658 'E3 '.651 F   ?5G  ?Ѐ '%FH3 'Lowerbound '%FI3 '8.767 '%FJ3 '1.000 '%FK3 '8.767 '%FL3 '.658 '%FM3 '.428 %FN   ?5O  ?SP_RICH* WxP IMPACT 'Q3 'SphericityAssumed 'WxR3 '10.142 'WxS3 '5 'WxT3 '2.028 'WxU3 '.761 'WxV3 '.580 WxW   ?5X  ?Ѐ 'Y3 'GreenhouseGeisser 'Z3 '10.142 '[3 '3.579 '\3 '2.834 ']3 '.761 '^3 '.541 _   ?5"C`  ?Ѐ 'a3 'HuynhFeldt 'b3 '10.142 'c3 '4.824 'd3 '2.102 'e3 '.761 'f3 '.576 g   ?5Tuh  ?Ѐ 'i3 'Lowerbound 'j3 '10.142 'k3 '1.000 'l3 '10.142 'm3 '.761 'n3 '.394 o   ?5p  ?Error(SP_RIC @q H) 'r3 'SphericityAssumed '@s3 '239.842 '@t3 '90 '@u3 '2.665 '@v3 'Ѐ '@w3 'Ѐ @x   ?5y  ?Ѐ 'Qrz3 'GreenhouseGeisser 'Qr{3 '239.842 'Qr|3 '64.416 'Qr}3 '3.723 'Qr~3 'Ѐ 'Qr3 'Ѐ Qr   ?5   ?Ѐ ' 3 'HuynhFeldt ' 3 '239.842 ' 3 '86.839 ' 3 '2.762 ' 3 'Ѐ ' 3 'Ѐ     ?5!=  ?Ѐ '!3 'Lowerbound '!3 '239.842 '!3 '18.000 '!3 '13.325 '!3 'Ѐ '!3 'Ѐ !   -#!N"o  -#X X MkS##X=X XXJ#CE.,US.,X XXX= >  XXUSCE.,iu#X X  >##X=X XX#CE.,US.,  Insummary,theimpactzonesofsampledcampsitesandtrailsegmentsdiffer,withcampsites # showingsignificantlymoreimpactondepthofmaterialonthesoil,diversityandplantdensityin %0 areasimmediatelyadjacent.Thesefindings,althoughinterestinginthemselves,needtobeconsidered r&  inthecontextofhumanuseinordertoappreciatetheirimplicationsforbackcountrymanagers. '!  D.3TheInfluenceofHumanUseVariables  8)Y#   Aprimaryhypothesisofthisresearchisthattheintensityofhumanuseofcampsitesandtrail *$ segmentswillcausechangesinecologicalvariableswhichdescribeadjacentplantcommunities. +& However,whenthenumbersofvisitors,elsewhereinthisreportshowntobethestrongestofthe  humanusevariables,wasrunasacovariateinrepeatedmeasuresanalyses,noeffectsonthedepth Bc ofmaterialonthesoil,ondiversity,onspeciesrichness,onplantdensityoronbasalareaoftreesin  thesamplewerefound.  )  UXX=E.DiscussionandRecommendations#X=XUb#      E.10  DiscussionandConclusions g ##   Humanusevariables(numberofvisitors,numberofpartiesandmaximumpartysize)are   correlatedfairlystronglywiththeareaofobviousimpactoncampsitesandtrailsegments.The ,M  numberofvisitorsseemsaparticularlyrobustcausalfactorindeterminingtheareaofobviousimpact,   especiallyoncampsites,butalsoalongtrailsegments.Inthis,researchconfirmstheconcernsofpark  staff:morepeopleonasiteortrailsegmentmeansobviousphysicalandecologicaldeterioration Uv there.However,theresearchcontributeslittleofsubstancetoansweringthe(management)question  ofhowmuchdeteriorationisacceptable.Itdoessuggestthatthequestionneedsattention,perhaps < ataspatialscaledifferentthanthatapplicabletodiscussionsofecologicalintegrityandperhapswith ~ referencetotheviewsofbackcountryusers.    Theeffectsofdistancefromcampsitesandtrailsegmentswerenoticeableonseveralofthe De  ecologicalvariables.Thevariables,depthofmaterialonthesoil,plantdiversityandplantdensity, " werestatisticallydifferentimmediatelyadjacenttocampsitesthanfartherawayintheplots.These  +$ distanceeffectsdidnotarisealongtrailsegments.Thesefindingsareintuitivelysatisfying:visitor m & presencealongtrailsegmentsistemporaryandlinear,whereasthedurationandvarietyofvisitor !( activitiesoncampsitesismuchhigher.Moreover,thefindingthatecologicalimpactsonvegetation 3#T* donotextendbeyondthefirstrowofsamplingstationsintheplotsadjacenttocampsitessuggests $, that,intermsofvegetation,ecologicalintegrityisnotbeingcompromisedbybackcountryrecreation % . activities. \'}!0   Addinghumanusevariablestotherepeatedmeasuresanalysis,especiallythenumberof ("2 visitorstocampsitesorusingtrailsegments,inhopesofdeterminingadirectcauseandeffect "*C$4 relationship,didnotyieldsignificantstatisticalresults,suggestingthattheintensityofvisitoruse +%6 eitherdoesnotaffect,orhasnotyetaffected,plantcommunitiesadjacenttothecampsitesandtrail  segments.Therefore,theexpectationattheoutsetofthisresearchthatonemightmodeltheeffects Bc ofhumanuseonvegetationcannotbemet.     Thisresearchprojectsetouttofindanswerstotworesearchquestions:  ) "J3 "  J3. 23  0    X=XXX=whataretherelationshipsbetweenbackcountrytravelandcampingand(terrestrial)ecological k  impactsinKejimkujikNationalPark?,and,J3. [ ݌  ## Ќ  "J3 "  J323  0    #X=XXX= #X=XXX=hasthebackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategydevelopedbythenationalparkstaffbeen 1R  successful?#X=XXX=6#J3݌ ## Ќ    Theresearchfindingssuggestthat,undertheexistingbackcountryrecreationmanagement   strategy,backcountrytravelandcampingarehavinglittleeffectonvegetationadjacenttocampsites Z{  andtotrailsegments.Atthescaleatwhichitmakessensetotalkaboutecologicalintegrity,itisclear   thatbackcountryusehasnotreachedathresholdwhereecologicalintegrityisatrisk.However,there  A isastronganddirectrelationshipbetweenthenumberofbackcountryusersandtheareaofobvious  impactoncampsites.Atalower,moresitespecificscale,however,itisevidentthatahighof  visitationisincreasingthesizeofareasdenudedofvegetation. Ij   Whatthenofthebackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategy?Hasitsucceededinwhat  managersexpectedofit?Forecologicalintegrityandforvegetation,theanswermustbeyes. 0  Vegetativeandphysicalimpactsdonotextendfarfromcampsites;moreover,theminorimpacts r" foundseemunrelatedtotheintensitytowhichcampsitesareused.However,onasitespecificlevel, $ theareaofobviousimpactonbothtrailsandcampsitesishighlyrelatedtovisitationanduse.Atthis 8 Y& level,thestrategyhasbeenlesssuccessfulinmanagingtheimpactsofhumanuse. !(   Thisstudyhaspointedoutthestrengthsandweaknessesofacarryingcapacityapproachto "* managinghumanuseinparksandprotectedareas. a$,  E.20  Recommendations %.##   Recommendationsbasedupontheresearchfindingsareofferedhereforuseinhumanuse &'G!0 managementinbackcountryareasofKejimkujikNationalPark. ("2   Itisevidentthattheexistingbackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategyisworking ) $4 effectivelyinprotectingecologicalintegritywhileallowinghumanuse.Consequently, O+p%6  #  }    "J3 "  J323  0    thebackcountryrecreationmanagementstrategyshouldbecontinued.J3?݌b## Ќ    Visitationishavingnegativephysicalandecologicaleffectsatthesitelevelhowever.Indeed, c itwasparkmanagersconcernsabouttheseeffectsthatprovidedtheoriginalimpetusforthis ( research.Formanagers,theseeffectshaveclearlygonebeyondwhattheyarepreparedtoaccept.  ) Whatisneededisasystematicstudyofwhatlevelsofdisturbanceoncampsitesinthebackcountry   areacceptable.Suchastudymightinvolvebackcountryusersaswellasparkstaffandshouldlead Q   toastandardforthesizeofbackcountrycampsites.Managementactions,direct(closingsitesona  R  rotationalbasis,imposingquotasonusersatexistingheavilyimpactedsites)orindirect(identifying   routingsfortravelinthebackcountrytospreadtheeffectsofvisitation)canthenbedevelopedto z  achieveortomaintaintheacceptablestandard.Therecommendationhereis: {  "J3"  J3223  0    toconductaVisitorImpactManagementstudy,involvingbothstaffandvisitors,todetermine @  standardsforareasofobviousimpactsonbackcountrycampsites.J32_݌A## Ќ  Twocorollariestothisrecommendationare:  "J3"  J323  0    toworkwithstaffandvisitorstodeterminethemostappropriatedirectandindirect i managementactionstoachievethatstandard,andJ3 ݌j## Ќ  "J3"  J3*!23  0    tomonitorachievementofthestandardregularlyaspartofecologicalintegrityreporting.J3*!W!݌/## Ќ    Asoutputsofthisresearch,the20plotsestablishedinKejimkujikNationalParkoffer 0  opportunitiesforfurtherresearchandmonitoring.Consequently,itisrecommendedthat: " "J3"  J3 #23  0    physicalandvegetativedatabecollectedfromtheplotsevery5yearsforthepurposeof X$ conductinganalysestodetermineifvisitationishavingecologicalimpactsbeyondtrailsand Y& campsites.J3 #M#݌!(## Ќ  Furthermore,itisrecommendedthat: "* "J3"  J3$23  0    theplotsbemadeavailabletootherresearcherswhomightutilizetheminstudiespertaining #, toecologicalintegrityinthenationalpark.J3$&%݌G%.## Ќ    Anotheroutputfromthisresearchisatopologyofvisitormovementsandconcentrationsin &H!0 thebackcountryfor1995.Thistopologyaffordsmanyhumanusemanagementapplications.  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